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# IPM Guidelines For Grains

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## Pages

- [IPM guidelines for grains](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/) - These IPM guidelines provide an extensive collection of tools and strategies to manage pests in grain cropping systems. It is not possible to have a rigidly defined set of IPM rules because for each cropping system and season the suite of pests that require management is different. Available management tools also vary between regions and
- [Monitoring beneficial populations](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/making-informed-control-decisions/monitoring/measuring-beneficial-insect-effectiveness/) - Factoring in the contribution, or potential contribution, of beneficial insects to a management decision is not easy. Identifying which ones might have an impact on the pests in that crop, and estimating how much impact they might have is important when determining whether beneficials are likely to suppress the pest population below threshold, or whether you will need to treat
- [Growing a healthy crop](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/growing-a-healthy-crop/) - The overall health and vigour of a crop will influence its susceptibility to insect attack, and its ability to compensate for insect damage. Below are some of the crop production factors that can affect plant-insect interactions. Crop choice and timing Rotations may assist with weed management, reducing the potential for green bridges, however some crop rotations can
- [Sorghum](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/crops/sorghum/) - Insect pest risk High risk Reduced risk Low risk Sorghum midge Wet winter/spring with abundant alternative host (Johnson grass). Late season crop that flowers when midge pressure is high. Crops where flowering is staggered (heads are susceptible for longer). Low MR rated variety and high midge pressure. Spread of flowering in the crop (> 3
- [Maize](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/crops/maize/) - Insect pest risk Fall armyworm (FAW; Spodoptera frugiperda) is a polyphagous pest that reached Australia in early 2020 and has since spread through many northern and eastern cropping regions. It has so far shown a marked preference for maize and sweet corn crops. Australian research is currently looking at how this pest will interact with
- [Fall armyworm](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/fall-armyworm/) - Fall armyworm (FAW; Spodoptera frugiperda) was first detected in northern Queensland in early 2020 and has since become widespread within Australia. Documented as a polyphagous pest, FAW has so far demonstrated a preference for cereal plants with whorls, particularly maize (and sweet corn) and sorghum (both grain and forage crops), and can cause significant damage.
- [Insecticide Resistance Management Strategies](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/resistance-management-strategies/) - Green peach aphid (GPA) Redlegged earth mite (RLEM) Diamondback moth (DBM) Helicoverpa armigera For IRMS in cotton, refer to the latest Cotton Pest Management Guide, available from the CottonInfo website. A 2019 guide on insect resistance in the Southern Region (current status, future risk and best management practices) is available on the GRDC website. Resistance
- [Resources](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/about/resources/) - In addition to the customised workbooks, participants at the 2013-15 'Decision making for insect management' workshops were provided with a range of additional reference material. On this page: "Best bet" IPM strategies North region insect management manuals I-spy manual Insectopedia Useful links Further reading See also individual Workshop presentations. ‘Best bet’ IPM strategies These IPM strategies
- [Further information](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/about/further-information/) - See also the Resources page from the IPM workshop series. Learn more about pest management in Australia with these newsletters and publications. The Beatsheet blog (Northern region) PestFax (WA) Pestfacts (SA & Western Vic) Pestfacts (Southeastern) I Spy manual (Southern region publication) State agency information Insect and mite control in field crops (DPIRD NSW) Managing insect
- [Armyworm in winter cereals](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/armyworm/) - While individual armyworm species can be difficult to tell apart, they are usually grouped together for management decisions, as their activity, damage and control methods are similar. Common armyworm Leucania convecta Northern armyworm Mythimna separata Lawn armyworm Spodoptera mauritia Fall armyworm (FAW; Spodoptera frugiperda) arrived in Australia in early 2020. While it has so far
- [Pheromone traps for Helicoverpa monitoring](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/making-informed-control-decisions/monitoring/pheromone-traps-for-helicoverpa-monitoring/) - Several companies within Australia supply pheromone lures and/or trapping equipment, including: Bugs for bugs Entosol Organic Crop Protectants Which pheromones do you need? Monitoring pulses and canola in dryland cropping areas = only H. punctigera (native budworm) required. Cropping area that is in proximity to irrigated summer cropping that may be hosting H. armigera. =
- [Monitor pest activity with traps](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/making-informed-control-decisions/monitoring/monitoring-with-traps/) - Traps are generally used to provide an indication of pest presence in a cropping region or field - not to provide an estimate of pest density on which management decisions can be made. There are some exceptions to this, where traps are the primary means of estimating pest abundance in a field e.g. shelter traps
- [Biological control](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/biological-control/) - Biological control occurs when pests are controlled by non-pest organisms that inhabit the surrounding crop(s), or nearby habitat. Biological control agents include: Beneficial arthropods (predators or parasitoids) Disease-causing organisms (pathogens) Vertebrate insectivores, such as birds and bats. It is an important component of an IPM system as biological control agents have a number of advantages:
- [Earth mites](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/earth-mites/) - Characteristics of earth mite species Red legged earth mite Halotydeus destructor (view lifecycle) Blue oat mite Penthaleus major (view lifecycle) Balaustium mite Balaustium medicagoense (view lifecycle) Bryobia mite Bryobia spp. (view lifecycle) See also: Earth mites in autumn-sown crops and pasture Mite species Characteristic damage Seasonal occurrence Other characteristics Red legged earth mite (RLEM) Adult mites 1 mm in
- [Aphids](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/aphids/) - Aphids are small insect pests with oval-shaped green, brown or black bodies. Often occurring in colonies, aphids suck on sap, causing loss of vigour, and in some cases yellowing, stunting or distortion of plant parts. Honeydew secreted by the insects can cause sooty mould to develop on leaves. When aphids transmit viruses, the impact on crop
- [Workshops](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/workshops/) - Early season canola pest management workshops 2019 A series of workshops on sustainable management of early season canola pests were conducted across NSW in February March 2019. Decision Making for Insect Management in Grain Crops, 2013-2015 This major workshop series on insect management was conducted at multiple locations within the Northern and Southern regions
- [Western](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/region/west/) - Comprises the cropping areas of Western Australia, where soil fertility is generally low to very low. Yields depend on winter and spring rainfall. In many areas, yields are low by world standards, but this is compensated for by the large scale and degree of mechanisation of the enterprises. Long-term variability in seasonal rainfall and production
- [Region](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/region/) - These IPM guidelines include geographic areas as defined by the Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC). Northern (QLD & NSW) Southern (VIC, TAS & SA) Western (WA) (Regional characteristics taken from GRDC website)
- [Southern](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/region/south/) - The southern region encompasses south-eastern Australia, which includes Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia. The south has a diverse suite of soils. While it’s generally low fertility with many subsoil constraints, such as salinity, sodicity and toxic levels of some elements, there are also some areas with very productive soils. Yield potential depends on seasonal rainfall, especially
- [Northern](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/region/north/) - The northern region encompasses Queensland and New South Wales and generally has high inherent soil fertility, with relatively high seasonal rainfall and production variability compared with the other regions. Both summer and winter crops are important for profit. The northern region is the largest source of Australia’s premium hard high-protein wheat for export and domestic use.
- [Pheromones](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/cultural-and-physical-control/pheromones/) - Sex pheromones are powerful chemical attractants emitted by female insects to attract males for mating. Pheromones of many species have been identified and are synthetically produced for use in insect pest management programs. Some pheromones attract only one type of insect, while others attract several related species. They can be used to monitor the arrival of
- [Aphids in pulses](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/aphids/aphids-in-pulses/) - Pulse aphids Cowpea aphid Aphis craccivora Blue green aphid Acyrthosiphon kondoi Faba bean aphid Megoura crassicauda (NSW only) Green peach aphid Myzus persica (see GPA insecticide resistance management strategy) Pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum Seedling Vegetative Budding/Flowering Insects and damage More information about aphids Cowpea aphid: Colonies start in growing points Blue green aphid: infest
- [Aphids in winter cereals](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/aphids/aphids-in-winter-cereals/) - Oat or grain aphid Rhopalosiphum padi Corn aphid Rhopalosiphum maidis Rose grain aphid Metopolophium dirhodum Rice root aphid Rhopalosiphum rufiabdominalis Russian wheat aphid Diuraphis noxia Insects and damage More information about aphids Aphids are most prevalent on pre-emergent to flowering cereals in late winter and early spring. High numbers often occur in years when there
- [IPM information](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/) - A wide range of supporting information is available on topics relevant to making good IPM management decisions. Prevention (keeping crops healthy and free from pests) and monitoring (crops, pests, natural enemies and climatic conditions) can have a large impact on the success or otherwise of management options. There is rarely a one-size-fits-all option for pest
- [Pathogens](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/biological-control/pathogens/) - Pathogens are disease-causing microorganisms that infect the pest, usually eventually killing it. Pathogen groups include: Fungi Viruses Bacteria Nematodes Fungi Fungal diseases are most common in moist environments, and may be more prevalent in wetter than average seasons. Fungal spores germinate and hyphae penetrate the insect skin (cuticle), grow in the insect's body, and may
- [Decision Making for Insect Management in Grain Crops (2013-15)](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/workshops/daq00179-about/) - Decision Making for Insect Management in Grain Crops workshops were conducted at multiple locations within the Northern and Southern regions during 2013-2015 as part of GRDC project DAQ00179*. Background Insecticide resistance, coupled with the regulatory withdrawal of a number of older insecticides, is creating a potential crisis for insect management in grain crops. This is
- [Contacts](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/about/contacts/) - National contacts for information about IPM: Western Australia: Dusty Severtson dustin.severtson@agric.wa.gov.au South Australia: Greg Baker Greg.Baker@sa.gov.au Kym Perry Kym.Perry@sa.gov.au Victoria: Paul Umina pumina@cesaraustralia.com Garry McDonald gmcd@unimelb.edu.au New South Wales: Joanne Holloway joanne.holloway@dpi.nsw.gov.au Queensland: Melina Miles melina.miles@daf.qld.gov.au Hugh Brier hugh.brier@daf.qld.gov.au
- [Early season canola pest management workshops 2019](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/workshops/early-season-canola-pest-management-workshops-2019/) - A series of workshops on sustainable management of early season canola pests were conducted across NSW in February March 2019. The related publication Insect pests of establishing canola in NSW is available from the GRDC website. Workshops were held at: Croppa Creek Gunnedah Trangie Dubbo Parkes Condobolin Cowra Wallendbeen Junee Reefs Barellan West Wyalong Lockhart
- [Wellington, Forbes, and Griffith (2013)](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/workshops/daq00179-about/wellington-forbes-and-griffith-2013/) - Workshops were held in Wellington, Forbes and Griffith on the 3, 4 and 5 September respectively. These workshops consisted of a discussion on pest management theory, followed by an afternoon in the paddock. As each workshop placed emphasis on the issues raised by its participants, the following presentations and links have been provided as additional
- [Pittsworth and Goondiwindi (2014)](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/workshops/daq00179-about/pittsworth-and-goondiwindi-2014/) - Agronomist workshops were held in Pittsworth on the 10 February, and Goondiwindi on the 11 February 2014. The presentations are provided here in pdf format. Introduction to IPM (320 kB) Canola (1.2 MB) Mungbean and soybean (1.4 MB) Sorghum (1.9 MB) Winter cereals (1.1 MB) Note: if available, presenter notes have been added to the
- [Narromine, Gunnedah, & Warialda (2014)](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/workshops/daq00179-about/narromine-gunnedah-warialda-2014/) - IPM workshops were held in New South Wales (Narromine, Gunnedah, and Warialda) on the 16, 17 & 18 September 2014. The presentations are provided here in pdf format. Introduction to IPM (365 kB) Sorghum (1.2 MB) Soybean and Mungbean (4.6 MB) Sunflower (1.9 MB) Canola (2 MB) Virus in canola (2.4 MB) Winter pulses (2.3
- [Moura and Emerald (2015)](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/workshops/daq00179-about/moura-and-emerald-2015/) - IPM workshops were held in Central Queensland (Moura and Emerald) on the 3 and 4 February 2015. The presentations and additional resources are provided in pdf format. Sorghum (1.2 MB) Sunflower (1.9 MB) Mungbean and soybean (6 MB) Winter pulses (2.3 MB) Winter cereals (1.3 MB) Other resources of interest Slaters (470 KB) Establishment 'Best Bet' (Northern region)
- [Kadina, Kapunda, Albury, Bendigo & Horsham (2014)](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/workshops/daq00179-about/kadina-kapunda-albury-bendigo-horsham-2014/) - Workshops were held in Kadina on 31 March, Kapunda on 1 April, Albury on 8 April, Bendigo on 9 April, and Horsham on 10 April 2014. The presentations are provided here in pdf format. Canola (1.6 MB) Establishment pests (2.5 MB) Identification and monitoring (1.9 MB) Slugs and snails (3.6 MB) Winter cereals (1.3 MB)
- [Dubbo and Wagga Wagga (2013)](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/workshops/daq00179-about/dubbo-and-wagga-wagga-2013/) - Agronomist workshops were held in Dubbo on the 26 March, and Wagga Wagga on the 27 March 2013. The presentations are provided here in pdf format. Introduction (560 kB) IPM (770 kB) Monitoring (690 kB) Thresholds (580 kB) Insecticides (830 kB) Establishment pests (840 kB) Winter cereals (870 kB) Canola (2 MB) Winter pulses (1.8
- [Dalby and Moree (2013)](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/workshops/daq00179-about/dalby-and-moree-2013/) - Agronomist workshops were held in Dalby on the 13 August, and Moree on the 15 August 2013. The presentations are provided here in pdf format. Introduction (600 kB) Integrated Pest Management (460 kB) Insecticides (Dalby, 820 kB | Moree, 830 kB) Monitoring and thresholds (660 kB) Natural enemies (1.5 MB) Winter cereals (1.4 MB) Sorghum
- [Casino and Grafton (2014)](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/workshops/daq00179-about/casino-and-grafton-2014/) - Workshops were held in Casino on the 12 February, and Grafton on the 13 February 2014. The presentations are provided here in pdf format. IPM toolbox (620 kB) Insect monitoring (1.1 MB) Management strategies (4 MB) Note: if available, presenter notes have been added to the slides as a pop-up (hover mouse above the orange
- [Campbell Town, Lake Bolac, & Cummins (2014)](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/workshops/daq00179-about/campbell-town-lake-bolac-cummins-2014/) - IPM workshops were held in Campbell Town (Tasmania), Lake Bolac (Victoria), and Cummins (South Australia) on the 9, 10 & 11 September 2014. The presentations are provided here in pdf format. Introduction to IPM (500 kB) Natural enemies (1.2 MB) Crop establishment pests (3.7 MB) Slug management (3.4 MB) Canola (2.9 MB) BWYV in canola
- [Adelaide and Horsham (2013)](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/workshops/daq00179-about/adelaide-and-horsham-2013/) - Agronomist workshops were held in Horsham on the 23 July, and Adelaide on the 25 July 2013. The presentations are provided here in pdf format. Introduction (620 kB) IPM toolbox (560 kB) Establishment pests (1 MB) Monitoring and thresholds (680 kB) Canola (1.1 MB) Natural enemies (800 kB) Insecticides (800 kB) Winter cereals (1.4 MB)
- [Peanuts](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/crops/peanuts/) - Insect pest risk High risk Moderate risk Low risk Helicoverpa Early crops at greater risk. Use of non-selective sprays in the vegetative stage can flare helicoverpa and mites. Etiella Dryland crops in dry summers, especially if there is an end-of-season drought with conditions favouring aflatoxin. Irrigated peanuts with access to late season irrigation. Peanut
- [Helicoverpa in soybean](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/helicoverpa/helicoverpa-in-soybean/) - Helicoverpa can attack soybeans at any stage from seedling to pod ripening but are most likely to attack flowering/podding/podfill stages. Insects and damage Vegetative soybeans are more attractive to helicoverpa than the vegetative stages of other summer pulses Helicoverpa populations (>6/m2) can inflict serious damage in vegetative crops as they target the plant’s axilliary buds which
- [False wire worms in seedling crops of canola, sorghum and sunflower](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/soil-insects/false-wire-worms-in-canola/) - False wire worms (FWW) Grey false wireworm (Isopteron puctatissimus) Bronze field beetle (Adelium brevicorne) Gonocephalum sp Pterohelaeus sp Objectives Pre sowing Seedling Insects and damage Where to find them Detection prior to sowing is important as there are no effective post-sowing treatments. Fields with a history of FWW infestation, or in a region where FWW
- [Bt](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/biological-control/pathogens/bt/) - Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) is a naturally occurring bacteria which produces spores that contain a toxin. There are a number of different strains of Bt, each usually specific to an insect group. Bt is available in a range of pesticide formulations, and has been incorporated into some varieties of genetically modified crops such as cotton and corn, to
- [NPV](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/biological-control/pathogens/npv/) - What is NPV? NPV stands for nucleopolyhedrovirus. NPV is a viral disease of Helicoverpa caterpillars that occurs naturally in the Australian environment. Australian farmers have access to commercially produced formulations of NPV for the control of Helicoverpa infestations in crops. NPV is safe and environmentally friendly. It is ideally suited for inclusion in an integrated pest
- [Chickpea - southern region](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/crops/winter-pulses/chickpea-southern-region/) - Insect pest risk High risk Moderate risk Low risk Native budworm Wet winters in breeding areas of central Australia + suitable weather conditions that bring moths from west to east result in spring migrations. Repeated influxes of moths over long periods, resulting in need for continuous monitoring. Broadleaf weeds hosting cutworm and helicoverpa that then
- [Sunflowers](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/crops/sunflowers/) - Insect pest risk High risk Moderate risk Low risk Establishment pests Weedy fallows and volunteers. History of establishment pests. High level of retained stubble. Crop emergence and establishment slowed by cool, dry or wet conditions. High incidence of parthenium weed in close proximity to seedling crops (Central Queensland). High risk of Tobacco Streak Virus (TSV)
- [Mungbean](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/crops/summer-pulses/mungbean/) - Insect pest risk High risk Moderate risk Low risk Podsucking bugs Sequential plantings of summer legumes (pest moves progressively from early to later plantings and can build to very high levels). Water stressed plants (set fewer pods = greater % seed damage/bug population). Late summer plantings (at greater risk than spring planted crops, particularly in southern Qld and
- [Chickpea - northern region](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/crops/winter-pulses/chickpea-northern-region/) - Insects other than helicoverpa are rarely a problem in chickpeas. Chickpeas secrete an organic acid (malic acid) from hairs on their leaves, stems and pods that makes the crop unattractive to insects. Seedling pests, such as mites and cutworm, can attack chickpeas, but are seldom an economic problem. Insect pest risk High risk Moderate risk
- [Winter pulses](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/crops/winter-pulses/) - For region-specific infor­ma­tion on crop risk and likely pests, see: Chickpeas - northern region Chickpeas - southern region Faba bean Field peas Lentils Lupins Further information 'Best Bet' IPM strategies (available in pdf format from the IPM guidelines for grains website) Growing broad beans in Western Australia (Agriculture WA) Faba beans (NSW DPI pdf) Growing faba bean (DEPI
- [Lucerne flea](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/lucerne-flea-in-winter-seedling-crops/) - Lucerne flea (Sminthurus viridis) in winter seedling crops and pastures (Southern Australia only). View diagram of lucerne flea lifecycle Objectives Pre-plant Seedling - Vegetative Insects and damage Lucerne flea (LF) survive summer as diapausing eggs which hatch in autumn when cool, moist conditions prevail. In spring, assess the weediness, and Lucerne flea (LF) abundance, in
- [Aphid parasitism](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/aphids/aphid-parasitoids/) - Aphid parasitoids are small wasps that lay their eggs inside the body of aphids. The larva develops, slowly eating the aphid and killing it before the wasp completes development and emerges from the dead aphid. In the process of developing, the wasp larva spins a cocoon inside the aphid. These swollen, brown 'mummies' are evidence of
- [Website terms of use](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/about/terms-of-use/) - This website has been compiled by Crop and Food Science, The Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Queensland © State of Queensland, 2016 The Queensland Government supports and encourages the dissemination and exchange of its information. The copyright in this publication is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Australia (CC BY) licence. Under this licence you
- [Reflective surfaces](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/cultural-and-physical-control/reflective-surfaces/) - Experimentation with reflective surfaces in horticulture to repel aphids have been carried out in many parts of the world. Reflective mulches reduce landing rates of aphids with materials such as aluminum foil and white polythene proving effective repellents. Reflective mulches were also found to be most effective when both sides of the row were covered
- [Snails in seedling crops](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/slugs-and-snails/snails-in-seedling-crops/) - Applicable to canola, winter cereals, winter pulses, and summer crops. Objectives Pre-sowing Seedling - Vegetative Grain fill / Podding Harvest Insects and damage Species of snails High risk: Weedy fields Alkaline calcareous soils Retained stubble Wet spring, summer, autumn History of snails All species of snails congregate at the base of summer weeds or in topsoil. Pointed
- [Petroleum or mineral oils](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/cultural-and-physical-control/petroleum-or-mineral-oils/) - Petroleum oils are highly refined, paraffinic oils that are used to manage pests and diseases of plants. Petroleum oils may be referred to by many names, including horticultural oil, spray oil or white mineral oil. Oils are most effective against soft-bodied insects and mites. They are commonly used against mites, aphids, whiteflies, thrips and mealybugs.
- [Sorghum midge](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/sorghum-midge/) - Sorghum midge (Stenodiplosis sorghicola) in sorghum Download a diagram of the sorghum midge lifecycle (57 kB PDF) Pre-plant Flowering Insects and damage After harvest, larvae enter an overwintering diapause in cocoons within damaged or trashed florets.The first generation of midge is typically in Johnson Grass. Midge found in spider webs is a sign that they
- [Host plant characteristics](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/cultural-and-physical-control/host-plant-resistance-or-susceptibility/) - Plants can be resistant or susceptible to insect attack. They can also be selected by breeders for these specific traits or they maybe genetically modified to increase their resistance to insect pests. Plants defend themselves from insect attack by different means: Antibiosis – certain plant parts can adversely affect insect biology Antixenosis – some plant
- [Kaolin](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/cultural-and-physical-control/kaolin/) - What is Kaolin? Kaolin is a naturally occurring clay resulting from weathering of aluminous minerals. It is used as an anti-caking agent in processed foods and an additive to cosmetics, toiletries and health products. It is also used as an 'inert' carrier in some pesticides, and enhances the performance of some microbial products. In Australia,
- [Area wide pest management](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/making-informed-control-decisions/area-wide-pest-management/) - Area wide management (AWM) is when growers or advisers approach pest management as a group in a geographic area, rather than on individual farms. AWM is particularly relevant for pest species that are mobile, have a wide host range (crop and non-crop), and are locally generated in the farming system, and enables management strategies on a larger-scale that
- [Farmscaping and native vegetation](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/cultural-and-physical-control/farmscaping/) - Farmscaping is a holistic approach to pest control that focuses on increasing biodiversity on farms in order to maintain healthy populations of beneficial insects , birds and other wildlife as part of an ecological pest management program. Benefits of farmscaping: Increasing biodiversity Reduce the need for pesticides Lower cost Reduce the exposure of harmful chemical to
- [Slugs in seedling crops](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/slugs-and-snails/slugs-in-seedling-crops/) - Applicable to canola, winter cereals and pulses. Objectives Pre-sowing Germination - Vegetative Insects and damage Species of slugs High risk: High rainfall areas (>450 mm/annum) Above average spring–autumn rainfall Cold wet establishment conditions No till stubble retained Summer volunteers Previous paddock history of slugs Soils high in clay and organic matter Slugs are generally not picked up when
- [Diamondback moth (DBM) in canola](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/diamondback-moth/) - Diamondback moth Plutella xylostella is a major pest of canola and other brassica crops. DBM is a migratory pest in some seasons, so outbreaks are difficult to predict. Non-crop hosts (brassica weeds) can be abundant in wet summers and maintain local populations of DBM. View the DBM insecticide resistance management strategy View a pdf of
- [Magnet](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/cultural-and-physical-control/magnet/) - Insect attractants – Magnet Magnet is an insect attractant for the control of Helicoverpa spp. moths, developed by researchers at the University of New England, Armidale. Magnet is a blend of 6 plant volatiles and feeding stimulants that mimic the type of odours that moths use to find nectar rich flowers. Moths use nectar as
- [Blackheaded pasture cockchafer](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/soil-insects/blackheaded-cockchafer/) - Blackheaded pasture cockchafer (Acrossidius tasmaniae) impacts seedling cereals and pastures in Tasmania, Victoria, South Australia and New South Wales. Insects and damage Larvae live in the soil, are "C" shaped and white with a black head capsule. Adults beetles are most visible in summer, particularly after rain and may be attracted to lights. Larvae feed at night, on
- [Timerite®](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/earth-mites/earth-mites-autumn-sown-crops-and-pasture/timerite/) - TIMERITE® provides farmers with a single spray date for optimum control of RLEM with a period of three days either side of this date to achieve good control the following autumn. This date is unique to each farm and remains constant from year to year. To obtain the date for your farm, use the longtitude
- [Insecticide resistance](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/chemical-control/insecticide-resistance/) - Insecticide resistance Insecticide resistance is a heritable change in the susceptibility of a pest population to a particular insecticide, or insecticide group. In practice, insects that repeatedly fail to be adequately controlled by the registered rate of an insecticide are said to be insecticide resistant. Where insecticide resistance levels are high, pest populations may be
- [Canola](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/crops/canola/) - Insect pest risk High risk Reduced risk Low risk Earth mites Paddocks rotated out of pastures. Intensively grazed pasture (reduces mite survival). Rotation with weed-free non-crop hosts reduces mite populations. Non-host examples: lentil, chickpea, wheat, barley, lupins, and linseed. Lucerne flea History of lucerne flea. Loamy, clay soils. Weedy fallow or pasture with no LF control. Intensive
- [Soybean - southern region](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/crops/summer-pulses/soybean-southern-region/) - This page includes information specific to the southern soybean production region. See also the northern region soybean page. Insect pest risk High risk Reduced risk Low risk Pod sucking bugs Sequential plantings of soybean (pod sucking bug populations move progressively from early to late plantings, eventually building to very high levels). Water stressed plants (set fewer
- [Winter cereals](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/crops/winter-cereals/) - Winter cereals include wheat, barley, oats, canary and triticale. Insect pest risk High risk Moderate risk Low risk Soil insects, slugs and snails Some crop rotations (e.g. cereal sown into a long term pasture phase) increase the likelihood of soil insects. High stubble loads. Above average rainfall over summer-autumn. History of soil insects, slugs and snails. Summer
- [Soybean - northern region](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/crops/summer-pulses/soybean-north/) - This page includes information specific to the northern soybean production region. Insect pest risk High risk Reduced risk Low risk Helicoverpa Use of non selective pesticides (e.g. synthetic pyrethroids & carbamates) in vegetative stages increases the risk of subsequent helicoverpa, mite and whitefly outbreaks in the more critical flowering/podding stages. Water-stress in crops increases the
- [Faba bean](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/crops/winter-pulses/faba-bean/) - Insect pest risk High risk Moderate risk Low risk Establishment pests History of high mite pressure. Following crops that host earth mite populations (e.g. pastures). Cool, dry or wet conditions (slow crop emergence and seedling growth). Weedy crop and/or crop edges hosting red legged earth mite (RLEM) that may move into germinating crop. Following a
- [Field peas](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/crops/winter-pulses/field-peas/) - Insect pest risk High risk Moderate risk Low risk Establishment pests History of high mite pressure. Previous crops that hosted earth mite populations (e.g. pastures). Cool, dry or wet conditions (slow crop emergence and seedling growth). Weedy crop and/or crop edges hosting RLEM that may move into germinating crop. Following a crop with reduced hosting capacity
- [Podsucking bugs](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/pod-sucking-bugs-in-summer-pulses/) - Podsucking bugs* (green vegetable bug, redbanded shield bug, brown bean bugs, brown shield bug) in summer pulses (soybean, mungbean, navy bean, adzuki bean) View a diagram of Green vegetable bug life cycle View images of podsucking bug nymph stages at the Beatsheet Blog Pre-plant/Seedling/Vegetative Budding/ Flowering Podset Podfill Podripening/Harvest Insects and damage Sequential plantings
- [Helicoverpa](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/helicoverpa/) - Two species of Helicoverpa are serious pests of field crops (particularly grain legumes, summer grains and cotton) in the northern grains region of Australia. Helicoverpa armigera (cotton bollworm or corn earworm) is generally regarded as the more serious pest because of its greater capacity to develop resistance to insecticides, broader host range, and persistence in
- [Soil insects](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/soil-insects/) - Soil-dwelling insect pests can seriously reduce plant establishment and populations, and subsequent yield potential. Soil insects include: cockroaches crickets (view life cycle) earwigs (view life cycle) black scarab beetles (view life cycle) cutworms (view life cycle) false wireworms (view life cycle) true wireworms cockchafers (view life cycle diagrams of redheaded, blackheaded, and yellowheaded cockchafers) Farm management, and specifically cultivation practices, can
- [Farm biosecurity](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/growing-a-healthy-crop/farm-biosecurity/) - Farm Biosecurity and integrated pest management (IPM) are consistent in their goals of protecting crop health, often using a whole farm approach to good crop management. Many biosecurity risk mitigation strategies are synonymous with IPM preventative strategies and both rely on planning. This is particularly true for residential pests where there may be few chemical
- [Etiella](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/etiella/) - Lucerne seed web moth (Etiella behrii) in lentils, field peas, lupins, soybeans (WA, SA, VIC, NSW), and peanuts (QLD). Under hot and dry conditions, they may also occur in soybeans in Queensland. View an Etiella life cycle diagram Vegetative – early pod development Pod fill Drying off Insects and damage Incidence and abundance varies by
- [Rutherglen bug (RGB)](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/rutherglen-bug-rgb/) - The Rutherglen bug (RGB) is a common native insect. The adult RGB is a sap-sucking insect, four to six mm long and mottled grey, brown and black. It has clear silvery grey wings folded flat on its back. The RGB numph is wingless with a reddish-brown pear-shaped body. It looks similar to aphids but is
- [Mirids](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/mirids-in-soybean/) - Mirids (Creontiades dilutus, C. pacificus) in summer pulses - mungbean, navy bean, adzuki bean, faba bean, peanut and soybean. They are also a pest in cotton. Seedling/Vegetative Budding/Flowering/Podset Podfill and Podripening/Harvest Insects and damage Low numbers (≤1 per m2) are often present in vegetative crops, but do not damage vegetative terminals or reduce yield. Mirids
- [Cutworms](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/soil-insects/cutworms/) - Cutworms (Agrotis spp.) are a sporadic caterpillar pest that are usually only a problem in the seedling and vegetative stages. Distribution in the paddock is usually patchy or confined to portions of the paddock. While generally a pest of seedlings (1 to 5 leaf stage), cutworms can occasionally cause damage at tillering and early stem elongation
- [Economic threshold ready reckoners](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/making-informed-control-decisions/economic-thresholds/economic-threshold-ready-reckoners/) - Quick reference tables for key insect pests in sorghum, chickpeas, soybeans and mungbeans Economic thresholds are a key decision tool for growers and agronomists managing insect pests in their crops. Dynamic economic thresholds enable individual costs of control and grain prices to be included in the calculations to ensure the decision to treat or not
- [Parasitoids](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/biological-control/parasites-or-parasitoids/) - A parasite is an organism that lives on or in the body of another organism (the host) during some part of its lifecycle e.g. parasitic mites. Most beneficial insects found in grain production systems are parasitoids - organisms that spend a large part of their lifecycle attached to or within the organism (in a relationship
- [Predators](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/biological-control/predators/) - Insect predators consume several-to-many prey over the course of their development. They are free living, and are usually as big as or bigger than their prey. Predators may be generalists, feeding on a wide variety of prey, or specialists, feeding on only one or a few closely related species. Characteristics of predators Generally larger than
- [Converting insect counts](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/making-informed-control-decisions/monitoring/converting-insect-counts/) - Averaging Pest populations can be patchy, so when monitoring, insect numbers are recorded at multiple sites within a field to get an accurate representation of the overall population. The average of these counts is then compared to the relevant threshold for that pest. For example: If monitoring took place at 12 sites, counts for each
- [Economic Threshold Calculators](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/making-informed-control-decisions/economic-thresholds/economic-threshold-calculators/) - Economic threshold calculators have been developed for Helicoverpa in chickpeas and sorghum, sorghum midge and pod-sucking bugs in summer pulses in the north region. The cal­cu­la­tors can be used on-line, and for users with the lat­est browser ver­sions of Inter­net Explorer (9+), Chrome, Fire­fox or Safari, the cal­cu­la­tor can also be used offline. This means
- [Impact of common insecticides on beneficial insects](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/chemical-control/pesticide-impact/) - Note that the values provided here are generalisations and there may be exceptions (e.g. relating to specific species or time of application). Pest resurgence is included as there may be an increase in non-targeted pests following application of insecticides. This is mainly due to the demise of beneficials that may keep pests in check. Insecticide group* Persistence Overall ranking Impact on
- [Metarhizium](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/biological-control/pathogens/metarhizium/) - Metarhizium anisopliae, is a fungus that grows naturally in soils throughout the world and causes disease in various insects. Fungal spores attach to the surface of the insect, germinate and begin to grow. The fungus penetrates the exoskeleton of the insect and grows very rapidly inside the insect, causing it to die. The fungus can
- [Slugs and snails](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/slugs-and-snails/) - Slugs and snails are predominantly pests in the southern and western regions. Snails are not a problem in the northern region, however dam­ag­ing slug pop­u­la­tions have been reported in seedling crops in north­ern NSW and south­ern Queens­land in recent years. Increased slug and snail activ­ity may be due to the increase in zero/minimum till and
- [Thresholds](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/making-informed-control-decisions/economic-thresholds/) - The presence of a pest in a crop is not an automatic trigger for control. Attempting to prevent all damage is usually uneconomic. Economic thresholds help to rationalise the use of pesticides and are one of the keys to profitable pest management. The development of economic thresholds requires knowledge of pests, their damage, the crop's response
- [Pest life cycles](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/making-informed-control-decisions/pest-life-cycles/) - Awareness of a pest's life cycle, which stages are most likely to cause economic damage, and when best to monitor is essential when planning a pest management program. The following pest life cycle diagrams (available in pdf) indicate when the various pests stages are likely to be found in the crop, management considerations, and critical
- [Keeping records](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/making-informed-control-decisions/keeping-records/) - Accurately recording the results of sampling and other farm operations is critical for good decision making, and being able to review the success of control measures. Details of spray operations should include: Date and time Conditions (wind speed, wind direction, temperature, presence of dew and humidity) Product used (including any additives) Product rate and water rate Method of
- [Pest](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/) - Pests listed alphabetically Aphids Armyworm Diamondback moth Earth mites Helicoverpa Lucerne flea Mirids Pea weevil Pod sucking bugs Rutherglen bug Slugs and snails Soil insects Sorghum midge
- [Monitoring](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/making-informed-control-decisions/monitoring/) - Monitoring for insect pests and beneficials Timely crop checking is essential to detect pest populations before they can cause significant crop loss. For some pests, it is critical to detect them before they are too large to control effectively, or become entrenched in feeding sites where they cannot be controlled. The frequency of crop monitoring
- [Monitoring tools and techniques](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/making-informed-control-decisions/monitoring/monitoring-tools-and-techniques/) - On this page: What technique should I use? Monitoring tools Beat sheet Sweep net Visual Suction Cut-and-bash Bucket Sticky trap (lucerne flea) Shelter trap See also Monitoring for soil insects (soil insects page) What technique should I use? The table below indicates the most appropriate monitoring technique(s) for various pests at different crop stages. Pest/s
- [Intercropping](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/cultural-and-physical-control/intercropping/) - Intercropping refers to the cultivation of two or more crops in one field, either spatially (e.g. strip intercropping) or temporally (e.g. crop rotations). Advantages of intercropping Increases the diversity of a farming system Reduces risk Provides greater stability Can reduce pest and disease incidence. Intercropping layouts Strip intercropping is when two or more crops are grown
- [Grazing](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/cultural-and-physical-control/grazing/) - Grazing management is effective in managing populations of some pasture pests. Examples include: red legged earth mite lucerne flea cockchafers weevils slugs and snails Appropriate grazing of pastures can have flow on benefits to subsequent crops in the rotation. Intensive grazing of pastures has been shown to reduce the abundance of earthmites and lucerne flea. Shorter
- [Insects as virus vectors](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/making-informed-control-decisions/insects-as-virus-vectors/) - In field crops, plant viruses and related diseases can be transmitted by a number of insects. Aphids are considered to be the most important, but whiteflies, leafhoppers, thrips and beetles may also be virus vectors. The most common field crop viruses and their vectors include: Pest Virus Crop Green peach aphid Beet western yellows virus
- [Farm hygiene](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/cultural-and-physical-control/host-plant-availability/) - Many insects have preferred hosts, and some are host specific. If host plants can be manipulated then pest populations can be suppressed or even controlled. Sample pre-season weeds to determine potential pest pressure for crops. Be aware that the introduction of other crops into the area may increase host availability (summer host plants e.g. lucerne and sorghum increase
- [Cultural and physical control](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/cultural-and-physical-control/) - Cultural and physical practices for pest control were utilised long before the advent of chemical control methods. The goal is to make the crop environment less suitable for insect pests, or spatially manipulate pest populations by repelling or trapping to prevent them establishing where they may cause crop damage. These practices can minimise pest attack and achieve partial or
- [Helicoverpa in canola](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/helicoverpa/helicoverpa-in-canola/) - Native budworm (Helicoverpa punctigera) is common when wet winters in breeding areas of central Australia combine with suitable weather conditions for spring migrations. Corn earworm (Helicoverpa armigera) survive over winter as diapausing pupae in the ground. Moths emerge in Oct-Nov and the first generation goes through in spring-flowering crops (e.g. chickpea, canola), or on weed
- [Conserving or supplementing beneficials](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/biological-control/beneficial-insects/conservation-of-beneficials/) - The impact of beneficial arthropods can be maximised by conserving or encouraging naturally-occurring populations and encouraging population increases, or by supplementing the natural enemy complex by releasing mass-reared beneficials into the cropping system. Conservation and promotion of beneficial arthropods Crop management considerations to preserve and promote beneficial activity include: Regular monitoring for pests and beneficials Awareness of
- [Selective insecticides](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/chemical-control/selective-insecticides/) - Selective or soft insecticides are active on specific pest species but have minimal impact on non-target organisms such as beneficials. There are varying degrees of ‘softness’ and some insecticides are selective for one group of natural enemies but detrimental to others (refer to pesticide impact on beneficials table). Selective insecticides: are not available for all pests.
- [Native budworm in winter pulses](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/helicoverpa/native-budworm-in-winter-pulses/) - Native budworm (Helicoverpa punctigera) in chickpea, lentils, lupins, field peas, and faba bean Seedling - Vegetative Budding - Flowering - Podset -Podfill Insects and damage Check weekly as high numbers can defoliate seedlings. Larvae that have developed on weeds can move onto seedlings. Larvae feed on the fruiting parts of plants and on the
- [Making informed control decisions](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/making-informed-control-decisions/) - Considerations when assessing management options A range of factors can influence decisions about the most appropriate options for pest management: Accurate monitoring. Is the technique used effective at finding pests (and beneficials)? Is there a difference in spatial distribution (e.g. high counts along crop edge)? Do indicator traps suggest a potential infux of pests? Correct
- [Earth mites in autumn-sown crops and pasture](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/earth-mites/earth-mites-autumn-sown-crops-and-pasture/) - Red legged earth mites (RLEM) - all winter crops (see the insecticide resistance management strategy for RLEM) Blue oat mites (BOM) - pastures, cereals, canola Balaustium mites - canola, cereals, lupins Bryobia mites - clover, canola, wheat, lupins Objectives Pre-plant Seedling emergence - Vegetative - Flowering Insects and damage More information about earth mite identification and
- [Pea weevil](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/pea-weevil/) - Pea weevil (Bruchus pisorum) are now established in all major field pea regions of southern Australia. Although the incidence of pea weevil has declined over the past decade, a failure to manage it well may result in an increase in pea weevil populations. Insects and damage Pea weevil infestation is initially restricted to the crop
- [Rutherglen bug in sorghum and sunflower](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/rutherglen-bug-rgb/rutherglen-bug-in-sorghum-and-sunflower/) - Rutherglen bug (Nysius vinitor) is best known as a seed-feeding pest, attacking grain as it develops and fills. However, in some seasons, large numbers of nymphs and adults can cause damage to establishing winter or summer crops. RGB populations can build up in summer weeds, and move from these into establishing winter crop, feeding on
- [Chemical control](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/chemical-control/) - When confronted with an above-threshold pest population, chemical intervention is often needed, however unnecessary spraying or choosing the wrong pesticides can: Flare secondary pests Hasten the development of pesticide resistance Contaminate the harvested product Increase operating costs Reduce profitability. Both short and long term impacts must be considered when selecting an insecticide, even in a relatively
- [Rutherglen bug in canola](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/rutherglen-bug-rgb/rutherglen-bug-in-canola/) - Rutherglen bug (Nysius vinitor) is best known as a seed-feeding pest, attacking grain as it develops and fills. However, in some seasons, large numbers of nymphs and adults can cause damage to establishing winter or summer crops. RGB populations can build up in summer weeds, and move from these into establishing winter crop, feeding on
- [Beneficials](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/biological-control/beneficial-insects/) - Natural enemies of insect and mite pests are referred to as beneficials. Predators consume several-to-many prey over the course of their development. They are free living, and are usually as big as or bigger than their prey. Predators may be generalists, feeding on a wide variety of prey, or specialists, feeding on only one or
- [Crop](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/crops/) - Canola Chickpea (north) Chickpea (south) Faba beans Field peas Lentils Lupins Maize Mungbeans Peanuts Sorghum Soybeans (north) Soybeans (south) Sunflower Winter cereals
- [Summer pulses](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/crops/summer-pulses/) - For region-specific information on crop risk and likely pests, see: Mungbeans Soybeans - northern region Soybeans - southern region
- [About](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/about/) - Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is not an exact science, but the careful selection and application of various pest management tactics to hopefully achieve the best outcome for a specific crop or cropping system. This website therefore offers a selection of management tools and a guide to the most likely pests within various crops and regions,
- [Aphids in canola](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/pests/aphids/aphids-in-canola/) - Turnip aphid Lipaphis erysimi Cabbage aphid Brevicoryne brassicae Green peach aphid Myzus persicae (view the Insecticide Resistance Management Strategy for GPA). Insects and damage Severe infestation by cabbage aphid may cause death of young plants. Green peach aphid is most common in autumn and rarely causes economic damage to canola, however early colonisation by virus-infected aphids
- [Cultivation for pest management](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/cultural-and-physical-control/cultivation/) - Cultivation affects arthropods that dwell in the soil for all or part of their life cycle. When appropriately timed with the life cycle stage, it can be used to directly control insect pest populations. An example is pupae busting, where cultivation is used to destroy the exit holes of Helicoverpa armigera moths after pupation. A
- [Lupins](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/crops/winter-pulses/lupins/) - Insect pest risk High risk Moderate risk Low risk Establishment pests History of high mite pressure. Previous crop hosts of earth mite populations (e.g. pastures). Cool, dry or wet conditions that result in slow crop emergence and seedling growth. Weedy crop and/or crop edges hosting red legged earth mite (RLEM) that may move into germinating
- [Lentils](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/crops/winter-pulses/lentils/) - Insect pest risk High risk Moderate risk Low risk Earth mites and lucerne flea Paddocks not treated for red legged earth mite (RLEM) in the previous season. Seasonal forecast is for dry or cool, wet conditions that slows crop growth. Pasture going into crop. History of high mite pressure. Crops established with minimum tillage may
- [Weather conditions](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/making-informed-control-decisions/weather-conditions/) - Weather conditions can play a major role in pest occurrence: Weather fronts can assist migratory pests (such as helicoverpa, mirids, and armyworm) to move into regions Heavy or excessive rainfall may dislodge or drown some pests. Above average rainfall encourages slugs and snails. Abnormally high or low temperatures may result in a decline or absence
- [Crop compensation](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/making-informed-control-decisions/crop-compensation/) - Feeding damage to host plants does not always result in economic losses to the final crop yield. In many cases plants can recover from or out-compete the effects of the feeding injury, particularly if it happens earlier in the season. Economic feeding damage is the measurable loss to the final crop yield or quality. For example, seedling establishment
- [Seed dressings or treatments](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/chemical-control/seed-dressings-treatments/) - Seed treatments provide targeted control of insect pests. They offer protection at the establishment phase and can often delay or remove the need to apply foliar sprays. In some instances, using seed treatments rather than foliar sprays can preserve beneficial populations. However, the benefits of seed treatments can be short-lived, or the efficacy of seed
- [Insecticide groups](https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/chemical-control/insecticide-groups/) - Insecticide groups used in Australian grains assigned according to mode of action Insecticide group Chemical group Examples of Insecticides 1 A Carbamates Aldicarb, Carbaryl, Methomyl, Pirimicarb, Thiodicarb 1 B Organophosphates Chlorpyrifos, Dimethoate, Maldison, Methidathion, Omethoate 2B Phenyl pyrazoles Fipronil 3A Pyrethroids Alpha-cypermethrin, Beta-cyfluthrin, Bifenthrin, Cyfluthrin, Deltamethrin, Esfenvalerate, Fenvalerate, Lambda-cyhalothrin, Pyrethrins 4A Neonicotinoids Acetamiprid, Clothianidin, Imidacloprid,